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Draft paper accepted by IJATL - do not cite without authors' consent


Abstract

This paper proposes a model for analysing the ways in which teachers negotiate the tensions between games narratives and curriculum objectives in incorporating commercial off-the-shelf computer games into formal educational practice. The paper is based on the year long Teaching with Games project which comprised surveys of over 1,000 teachers and students, and 10 exploratory case studies of teachers use of COTS games in four schools with over 300 children. The games used in the study were The Sims 2, RollerCoaster Tycoon 3 and Knights of Honor. These were used in ‘traditional’ lessons and in diverse competency and content-based curricular environments. A key finding was that teachers focusing on encouraging competency skills such as teamwork and problem-solving were more likely to maintain the overarching narrative of the game in lesson activities than teachers who were focusing on students’ acquisition of content knowledge.


1. Introduction

In recent years we have witnessed a significant interest in the potential of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) computer games to support learning in both formal and informal settings. Researchers from the fields of socio-cultural psychology, literacy studies and cultural studies have all argued for a re-evaluation of COTS computer games as powerful learning resources in young people’s leisure lives [1-4]. They are seen to attract and engage young people to learning who otherwise are seen as disaffected and disinterested in formal education. This academic interest in COTS computer games in non-school settings has led some policy makers (particularly in the UK) and industry groups to advocate using COTS computer games in schools [5].

Despite this, however, there have been relatively few studies of how teachers might incorporate such commercial games into the classroom; the factors which might impact on this process; and the types of games most likely to be amenable to this practice. These issues are distinct from 1) studies looking at the impact of edutainment and games designed for education, and 2) the learning achieved by using COTS computer games. This led to the Teaching with Games project, which focused on factors impacting on teachers’ incorporation of such games into their lessons. The wide range of influences found by the study included: the technical infrastructure and support available to teachers in schools; the professional culture of the school, including approaches to lesson planning, knowledge exchange and organisation of timetables; the expectations held by teachers of children’s levels of games literacy and expertise. These themes are discussed more fully in [6]. This paper focuses specifically on one factor, namely the need for teachers to balance and negotiate the ‘integrity’ of the game narrative against the demands of the curriculum being taught.


2. The Teaching with Games case studies

Given the setting in schools a formal experiment approach was inappropriate. Thus the case studies conducted consisted of a ‘collaborative partnership’ between researchers and classroom teachers. The researchers supported the establishment of games workshops and discussion groups between teachers, provided limited technical advice and took responsibility for classroom data collection. Teachers chose one of three pre-selected COTS computer games and were then responsible for determining exactly how, when, and which students would use the games, for planning schemes of work and assessment criteria and for managing all classroom activities. This approach was intended to remove certain obstacles likely to render the use of games impossible (such as the selection of unusable games for the classroom, or the presence of challenging technical issues) while at the same time allowing researchers to observe the range of factors shaping teachers’ incorporation of games into their practice. Teachers were free at any time to change or stop using the game if they felt it was inappropriate for their teaching.

Between June and August 2005 games and schools were selected and three teachers volunteered from each school. In September a one-day workshop was held at which the teachers selected a game to use such that there were three games groups of four teachers from different schools; semi-structured interviews were also conducted. Between October and December two workshops for each games group were held to discuss teachers’ experiences of games, and ideas for using the game for learning. Teachers also prepared lesson plans supported by e-mail lists and a wiki. Technical issues were addressed by school technicians, teachers and researchers. Between January and March 2006 teachers implemented their lesson plans, of which researchers observed approximately two lessons per teacher and interviewed students. Student Research Groups in two schools also collected data. Finally, in April and May teachers reviewed and reported back on the implementation and use of games in schools by a written report and interview.

The games selected were: The Sims 2 (Sims2), Knights of Honor (KoH) and RollerCoaster Tycoon 3 (RCT3). In Sims2 players direct the journey of their Sims' lives as they grow from infancy to adulthood. The development of the Sims character is unique, based on the personality given (or inherited) and the player’s choices. In KoH the player’s aim is to accumulate sufficient political and military influence to be crowned ruler of Europe. This is achieved through arranging marriages to provide heirs, making trade agreements and military pacts with other nations, infiltrating other nations’ courts and waging war on enemies. Finally, in RCT3 players act as a theme park manager; they control elements with the aim of maximising profit. Interactions between variables lead to the emergence of complex situations (so, for example, placing a food stall next to a nausea-inducing ride will lead to an increase in vomiting guests and a drop in general happiness and hence expenditure).

All three COTS computer games are often referred to as ‘god games’, as the player controls the entire environment. They were chosen against the following criteria identified as significant in supporting learning [7]: the broad appropriateness of the titles for schools, the learning curve of a title, the opportunities for players to engage with authentic content and challenges, the degree of autonomy exercised by the player, the presence of clear causal relationships between game variables, the critical reception given to the game on release, previous academic research on learning with games and non-duplication of existing school resources.

Four secondary schools participated in the study representing a variety of student intakes and curricula, a diversity of both rural and urban settings, and private and state sectors. Two of the three state schools had adopted a skills competency curriculum for Years 7 (11-12 years old), and Years 7 and 8 (11-13 years old). Both these curricula are adaptations of the RSA’s New Curriculum, often known as the ‘Opening Minds’ curriculum (see www.rsa.org.uk/newcurriculum). The skills and competencies encouraged broadly address learning, citizenship, relating to people, managing situations and managing information. The third state school followed the more traditional information-driven National Curriculum (see www.curriculumonline.gov.uk). The private school, which catered for German-speaking children, followed the Baden-Württemberg curriculum.

Three teachers volunteered from each school, and another two teachers assisted two of this original group and two had to drop out due to teaching constraints. The teachers are referred to by letter in the remainder of this report, ie Teachers A to N. Of the lessons that were taught in state schools the students taught were aged 11-13. In the private school they were between 13 and 17. The curricula covered were: competency (3), French (2), English, Physics (2), Design and Technology and mathematics. The scheme of work lasted from two lessons (two hours) to 16 (totalling over 10 hours) with an average of six hours.

The data gathered by researchers for the case studies comprises: the semi-structured interviews conducted at the start and end concerning the teachers’ attitudes to and use of computer games personally, their reflections on their use of COTS games in their teaching; all e-mails between teachers and with researchers and all contributions to the wiki; all lesson plans, schemes of work and supporting material generated; the teachers’ final reports on activity; field notes from researchers of approximately two lessons per teacher; and interviews with students conducted by researchers and two Student Research Groups. It should be noted that 10 case studies is a limited sample size. However, it includes an array of subjects and settings and therefore can be used to indicate areas for further investigation.


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